Colonial Geographies of Science
Sujit Sivasundaram, Department of Science and Technology Studies, University College London, and Department of History and Philosophy of Science, Cambridge, 2001

HPSCC 339 will explore how the British colonial experience defined the sciences and the vocation of the man of sciences at home and abroad in the long nineteenth century.

Course Tutor: Sujit Sivasundaram, Department of Science and Technology Studies, University College London, and Department of History and Philosophy of Science, Cambridge.

Schedule: Tuesdays 11.00-12.00 and Wednesdays 10.00-11.00 in G3, STS Department. First Lecture on 2 October 2001.

Pre-requisites: None. Students should be of second or third year standing.

Assessment: Two essays during Term 1; One examination during Term 3.

More information: Please contact Sujit Sivasundaram. e-mail:sps20@cam.ac.uk. My office hour in the Department of Science and Technology Studies is Tuesday 12.00-1.00 in G1, STS. If you need to contact me by post please use: Department of History and Philosophy of Science, Free School Lane, Cambridge CB2 3RH.

COURSE OUTLINE:

Students will consider how science's relations to objectivity, material culture, discovery, heroism and natural theology, were inextricable from the creation of a state which valued its intellectual heritage above those which were characterised as irrational, uncultivated, slothful, uncivilised and superstitious. The colonial experience did not only shape the relations between different paradigms of learning, it mediated between elite practitioners and amateurs, between educated arm-chair theoreticians and poor field-workers. This led to the creation of a calling to study nature, which was confined to a privileged few, and a particular brand of knowledge called science. Students will have the opportunity to think carefully whether distinctions between historiographies of home and abroad are viable, as debates in the furthest reaches of the empire had immediate implications at home. Engravings of natural historical specimens, portraits of practitioners of science, travel journals, popular travel fiction and periodical articles will be used as primary sources for this course.

CONTENT: The course will be divided into three segments.

Part A: Historiography: (4 Lectures).

Regardless of the trend in other fields, historians of science and empire continue to present grand scale models which aim to describe the interaction between science, colonialism and indigenous knowledge. Terms such as diffusion, appropriation, encounter and cross-fertilisation have become the mainstay of these schemes. In this section of the course students will consider the diverse views of social constructivism of science, actor-network theory and the new cultural historicism represented by each model. Is science in essence Western? Should historians present science as a discourse of ideas or a set of practices? Why is a developmental view of knowledge so difficult to eschew in a field that is supposed to shed light on current day under-development? After relating these questions to the various models in the literature, this section will end with the lecturer's own suggestion that it is possible to move beyond a simplistic view of the colonial experience based on the dichotomy between 'us' and 'them' so as to emphasise shared practices across epistemic divides. Instead of focusing on diffusion, appropriation, encounter and cross-fertilisation which all assume that science is simply a body of theories and that there is a rational divide between 'us' and 'them', it is possible to consider the embodied practices of observation, collection, display, measurement and experiment as forms of work that cut across the divide between home and abroad. Students will be encouraged to come to their own view.

Part B: Imperial Sciences: (12 Lectures).

In this section of the course students will be taken on a tour of various nineteenth-century sciences and their practitioners in order to show how these were shaped by the colonial experience. A significant literature exists on the colonial matrices of nineteenth-century anthropology, geography, cartography, mesmerism, medicine, natural history, biogeography, telegraphy, astronomy, agriculture and evolutionary theory. In each of these cases students will be introduced to practitioners now recognised as heroes, for example, Joseph Banks and Roderick Murchison, in addition to those whose credentials were questioned such as Paul Du Chaillu and Marianne North, and those who practised science in accord with other activities such as the missionaries John Williams and David Livingstone, the naval captains James Cook and George Vancouver, and the colonial officer, James Renell. This section of the course will move seamlessly between home and abroad, showing how the colonial experience mediated in debates at the geographical periphery at the same time as it intervened in the metropolitan proceedings of learned societies and in popular periodicals at home. By considering the spectrum of scientific practitioners, the ways in which the colonial experience allowed ideals of heroism and travel to become attached to the vocational practice of science will become visible.

Part C: Britain and the Pacific: (4 Lectures).

Through a detailed study of the Pacific region, students will be urged to come to a more sophisticated understanding of local reconstructions of science in the nineteenth century than is possible from a survey of all the geographies of the empire. The Pacific is well suited to a course such as this as it was the subject of lively interest at home. The voyages of James Cook captured the public imagination and solidified notions of noble savagery. Naturalists believed that their theories would be tested to the limit on the underbelly of the known world and the composition of a cluster of islands was particularly fascinating to sea-faring Britons who also came from an island. This section will present students with indigenous responses to science in classrooms, chapels, ships, and agricultural farms. It will show that Pacific islanders did not passively conform to the practices of western science. They reconstructed the parameters of observation, collection and display which were taken to be characteristic of the new form knowledge of nature. At home, however, narratives of development and improvement were said to mark Pacific islanders' ascent of the ladder of civilisation.

EXPECTATIONS:

By the end of the course you should be able to:

Knowledge: identify and describe the historical processes through which science, empire, vocation and nationalism were defined in the long nineteenth century.

Application: synthesise material from readings and lectures in cogent and original form so as to address set questions and engage in class discussion

Skills: demonstrate the skills of a colonial historian: the ability to navigate complicated historical situations where rival cultures and knowledges meet.

COURSE PLAN AND ASSESSMENT:

Lectures: Please pay close attention to the complementary document titled, 'Readings for Colonial Geographies of Science.' This list provides the compulsory and optional readings and it is your responsibility to ensure that these are completed so as to complement the lectures. The lectures will critically survey key issues and arguments and will include introductions and discussions of set readings. Specific discussions of texts will be announced in advance.

Examination: A three hour closed-book examination will take place during Term 3 and will be governed by College policies (see online) and the Department's 'Notes for Guidance (see online). This examination will place considerable emphasis on the required readings for the course and on the themes developed in lecture. Students should remind themselves of course expectations as they revise. All compulsory readings and lecture materials are fair game for examination; students will also be expected to draw more widely on optional readings.

The examination will contribute 50 percent of the final course mark. A "mock examination paper" for this course will be distributed at the end of Term 1 and will be discussed in the final class. A revision session will also be held in the first week of Term 3 and students are encouraged to bring their own questions to this meeting. Students who will not attend UCL during Term 3 will have alternative assessment as follows: essay one will contribute one third of the final course mark; essay two will contribute two thirds of the final course mark. Additional elements may be assigned in the second essay under these circumstances, and students eligible for this option must discuss their particulars with me prior to Reading Week of Term 1.

Essays: Two written essays are set for this course. They are designed to complement and extend lectures and required readings though these alone normally are insufficient for a mark above third class. Each essay contributes 25 percent of the final course mark.

Essay one will be due on: 7 November 2001, by 17.00.
Essay two will be due on: 12 December 2001 by 17.00.

Students submitting essays on time will have the opportunity to submit a revised version on or before the first day of Term 2.

Important notes regarding essays: Students are directed to Joe Cain's guidelines for essays: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/cain/hpsc/esyguide.htm and Joe Cain's requirements for essays: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/cain/hpsc/core.htm#essays. I expect students to read these requirements very closely in producing their assignments. Additional requirements specific to this course are provided on the sheets detailing the assignments. My marking of late submissions will follow the departmental policy as described in the Notes for Guidance (online). All submitted coursework must be accompanied by a signed 'HSPS course work submission sheet.' No course work will be marked without an accompanying cover sheet. Copies are available online or from the departmental office. It is the student's responsibility to complete assignments, to meet deadlines and clarify ambiguities if any arise. Marks generally follow the departmental criteria for assessment. In sum essays will be assessed on the following terms:

? the dept of scholarship and analysis
? the ability to identify both major and subtle points of the subject
? the extent of the critical assessment
? the evidence you provide of having reflected on and extended course content and themes
? the general scholarly presentation of the work performed.

Some common criticisms of essays that you should avoid:

? too much description/summary of readings and not enough analysis
? not developing your own argument
? not providing substantial, critical analysis
? terrible organisation and poor referencing techniques
? use of only one source or poor choice of sources (such as Encyclopaedia Britannica or Encarta)

To apply for an extension to the set deadline for an assignment, students must submit a completed 'Request for Extension of Course Work' form available from the departmental office or online. This request should be submitted, with documentation to the course tutor in the first instance. If confidential issues are involved, submission of the extension request and documentation may be made through a student's personal tutor or the undergraduate tutor. Requests should be in advance of the set deadline; submission of a request is no guarantee of approval.

POINTS OF POLICY:

General policies are described in the STS Notes and Guidance (online).

Office Hour: In Term 1 my office hour is Tuesdays 12.00-1.00 immediately following the lecture for this course on that day.

Plagiarism: The UCL Student Handbook defines plagiarism as "the presentation of another person's thoughts or words or artefacts or software as though they were [your] own." Students are expected to know the College and Departmental policies in detail and to avoid even the appearance of inappropriate behaviour. In the first demonstrated instance of plagiarism or other irregularities in this course, students will receive a 0F for the course and will be referred to the department and College officials accordingly. All course work is subject to scrutiny against past papers and other materials for irregularities.

Attendance: I follow the policy set by STS Notes for Guidance. I expect students to attend lectures regularly and to contribute actively in the course.

Requirements to sit the examination and to complete HPSCC339: Any student who has failed to submit a serious attempt at one essay will normally be barred from the examination. Also, I must be able to certify to College that all students sitting the examination have made reasonable efforts to engage the course. To complete the course, a student must sit the examination.

Assessment and additional examiners: Assessed materials are marked by the course tutor. These marks will be distributed at the first opportunity. To ensure fairness, materials subsequently are scrutinised by a second examiner within the Department and a consensus is reached on these separate assessments. All assessed materials and the consensus marks are made available for scrutiny by an examiner external to UCL. Marks are considered final only after the sub-board of examiners for science and technology studies has approved them in their annual meeting near the close of Term 3.

Disputed Marks: Students are strongly advised in the first instance to discuss and resolve any grievance over marks informally with the course tutor. If informal discussion fails to resolve the matter satisfactorily, and there appears to be genuine and substantive grounds for appeal, the student should submit a written explanation to the chair of the sub-board of examiners. A final formal complaint can be made to the College Registrar.

Mechanisms for student feed-back: Students have a variety of means of feed-back. These include written course evaluations at the end of term, and anonymous web comment boxes. Students are welcome to bring comments and criticisms to the course tutor in the first instance, by anonymous note if necessary, then to their personal tutor or the undergraduate tutor. The department schedules regular meetings of the Student Staff Consultative Committee to which all students are invited.

ASSIGNMENT 1:

This essay is due on 7 November 2001 by 17.00. It can be posted to me at the Department of History and Philosophy of Science, Free School Lane, Cambridge CB2 3RH (be sure to have the envelope postmarked). Otherwise it may be delivered to my office (1.1) or left in my departmental pigeon-hole. I advise you to follow this plan in writing the essay:

? decide what interests you most in the course thus far: historiography/critical reading of texts/ appreciation of how particular sciences are defined by colonialism
? isolate the relevant body of literature from the reading list that deals with your interest most closely.
? engage with this literature thoroughly: read and reflect, write summaries and points where you disagree.
? read the question very carefully and understand the various ways in which it could be interpreted.
? write a plan for your essay, including enough room for your own ideas; do not plan to regurgitate material from your readings.
? write a draft
? think about what your most important points are and rewrite your essay with the appropriate organisation.

Question:

Edward Said (1971) has said that colonial possessions have served as 'the live province, the laboratory, the theatre of effective Western knowledge.' How did science define itself as Western through the colonial enterprise?

You may answer this question by paying attention to one or more of the historiographic models outlined in the first section of the course or one or more science discussed in the second section of the course. Alternatively, you may use the question as the rubric for a book a review of Drayton's Nature's government or Prakash's Another reason. For more instructions on each of these options, see below.

Options: Regardless of which option you chose, I expect you to demonstrate some familiarity with Edward Said's theory of 'Orientalism.' I advise you to start your preparation for this essay reading as much of his book as you think appropriate, so as to understand his argument. You should beware of taking everything he says on board uncritically, as many historians and social theorists have criticised these views very forcefully now. You should not confine yourself to Said. Notice that though the question quotes Said, it asks a question which is wider than his statement.

Historiography: If you chose to answer this question in relation to the historiographic models outlined in the first section of the course, you should show some awareness of each of these models in your answer, even if you decide to focus on one of them. You should discuss such themes such as diffusion and cross-fertilisation which are raised by Said's statement. You should direct your attention to the material culture of science implied by the words "live province", "laboratory", and "theatre." Does Said's statement lead to a strict dichotomy between the West and the rest? These are the most obvious things that you should discuss, but remember that a creative answer will do much more.

A science: If you answer this question in relation to the definition of a particular science, you should explain why you think that science is important in relation to the question. It would be good if you restricted yourself to a science covered in lectures by the time you write your first draft. You should pay attention to the chronological definition of your chosen science. What did time do to the process of definition? Here too you should pick on Said's emphasis on material culture, implied in the words "live province", "laboratory" and "theatre." If you are brave you might want to think about alternate forms of your chosen science practiced by local people. How were these types of knowledge changed by the process of contact?

Book review: A book review based on this question will demonstrate the skill of close reading in relation to Drayton or Prakash. It will engage with the argument of the book critically and set it up against Said. Notice that Drayton and Prakash offer very different perspectives on the same issues; they also adopt different styles of writing and distinct approaches to historical evidence. So chose the book you want to focus on carefully. Again it is important to pick on the themes of definition and material culture emphasised by the question. What light do Drayton or Prakash shed on these processes?

ASSIGNMENT 2:

This essay is due on 12 December 2001 by 17.00. It may be posted to me at the Department of History and Philosophy of Science, Free School Lane, Cambridge CB2 3RH (be sure to have the envelope postmarked). Otherwise it may be delivered to my office (1.1) or left in my departmental pigeon-hole. I advise you to follow this pattern in writing the essay:

? pick a travel journal from the list discussed in the course thus far. If you want to chose a text which hasn't been discussed you should talk to me about this.
? read the chosen travel journal very closely. Make notes on what you strikes you as you read it for the first time. Your first reading of a primary text is crucial as this is the point where you can exercise your originality without feeling constrained by the secondary literature.
? pick two or three other travel journals now, and scan read these so as to understand how they deal with such themes as discovery and observation.
? read some secondary sources on travel writing (esp. Pratt).
? read the question very carefully and understand the various ways in which it could be interpreted.
? write a plan for your essay, including enough room for your own ideas; do not plan so as to regurgitate material from your readings.
? write a draft
? think about what your most important points are and rewrite your essay with the appropriate organisation.

Question:

You should answer this question with reference to one of the travel journals studied in this course or any other source of your choice with my consent. The question would work well with one of the following: Du Chaillu's Explorations, Livingstone's Missionary Travels, Williams' Narrative or Cook's Voyages.

Mary Louise Pratt (1992) writes that, 'only the seeing, and the writing of the seeing, can fully constitute the discovery.' How did the travel journal constitute the classic notion of the man of science as discoverer?

Options: Regardless of the primary source you chose I expect you to show some awareness of Pratt's argument, so you should spend some time reading her book. Notice again in this assignment, how the question that is asked is much wider than the quotation. So you must not restrict yourself to Pratt's argument, but should draw on the course's discussion of how the vocation of the man of science was defined in the long nineteenth century. The date of the primary text you pick is crucial. Is it prior to the definition of what it means to be a scientist? Which particular science does your primary source have most do with (eg. natural history, biology or geology)? Or does it encompass a variety of sciences and if so what does this say about scientific specialisation in the nineteenth century? You must also pay close attention to how a travel journal is itself a material artefact. Why did people write travel journals? These are some of the issues that you should cover, but a first class essay will do much more.

READINGS FOR COLONIAL GEOGRAPHIES OF SCIENCE
Special Topics Course, Term 1, Science and Technology Studies Department
If you have any queries, please contact, Sujit Sivasundaram, sps20@cam.ac.uk

On the introduction of horses to Lifu, in the South Seas:

"In a short time a string of women came in from the bush, each leaden with a basket of food. Terrified at the sight of the huge animal - for they had previously seen nothing larger than a hog - they threw down their burdens and cat-like, ran up the nearest trees for safety ... Finding at length that no harm befell them, they cautiously descended to the ground to collect the food which lay scattered in all directions. Whilst thus engaged our mate dismounted. The poor creatures opened wide their eyes and mouths in astonishment, for until that moment they imagined horse and man to be one!"

Leisure Hour, 1876, p.309.

We must beware of the spell that stories like this one have on us and consider how our amazement is related to the wonder recorded here. Why was the women's reaction worthy of interest to the metropolitan readership of a religious periodical such as the Leisure Hour? What mythical impressions of the local people entered the parlance of the colonising nation, as women were described as cats? Why were horses brought to Lifu in the first place and do we explain this act as an example of the colonial project of agrarian improvement or as a conscious attempt at ecological domination? This course will grapple with troubling questions such as these.

All essential readings are marked with an asterisk. Students are strongly encouraged to read as many of the items on this list as possible. Copies of all readings are available in the Teaching Collection of the UCL Library. Students are also directed to the libraries at SOAS, LSE, Imperial, Senate House, and the Wellcome Library.

HISTORIOGRAPHY

Class 1: Introduction to Colonial History
* Peter Marshall (ed.), The Cambridge illustrated history of the British empire (Cambridge, 1996).
C.A.Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British empire and the world, 1780-1830 (London, 1989)
Andrew Porter, European Imperialism, 1860-1914 (Macmillan, 1994)

Class 2: The Idea of Diffusion in the History of Science
* George Basalla, `The spread of Western science' in Science, Vol.156, 1967, pp.611-622
P. Palladino and M. Worboys, `Science and Imperialism' in Isis, Vol.84, 1993 pp.91-102
Lewis Pyenson, `Cultural Imperialism and exact sciences revisited' in Isis, Vol.84, 1993, pp.10-108

Class 3: The Definition of Science in the Colonies
Richard Drayton, 'Science, Medicine and the British Empire' in The Oxford History of the British Empire, Vol. V, Historiography, ed. by Robin W. Winks (Oxford, 1999) pp.264-75.
* Roy Macleod, 'Passages in British Imperial Science: From Empire to Commonwealth' in Journal of World History, Vol.4, 1993, pp.2-29.

Class 4: Self, Other and Knowledge in the Colonies
Michael Bravo, 'The Anti-Anthropology of Highlanders and Islanders' in Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, Vol. 29, 1998, pp.369-389.
David Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British saw their Empire (London, 2001).
* Edward Said, Orientalism (London, 1971).

Class 5: Locality, Region and the Global History of Science
Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism's Culture: Anthropology, Travel and Government (Oxford, 1994).
* David Wade Chambers and R. Gillespie, 'Locality in the history of science: colonial science, technoscience, and indigenous knowledge' in Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. 15, 2000, pp. 221-240.

IMPERIAL SCIENCES
Class 6: Natural History, Biogeography and Discovery
* Patricia Fara, 'Images of a man of science' in History Today, October 1998, pp.42-49
David Mackay, 'Agents of empire: The Banksian collectors and the evaluation of new lands' in Philip Miller and Peter Reill (eds.) Visions of empire: voyages, botany and representations of nature (Cambridge, 1996).
Janet Browne, 'Biogeography and empire' in Nicholas Jardine, Emma Spary and James Secord (eds.), Cultures of Natural History (Cambridge, 1996) pp.305-321.

Class 7: Agronomy, Geography and Ordering
Sir John Sinclair, 'Proposals for establishing by subscription a joint stock farming society for ascertaining the principles of agricultural improvement' in Annals of Agriculture, Vol.34, 1800, pp.360-95.
Alfred Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe 900-1900 (Cambridge, 1986). Chs. 7-8.
Richard Sorrenson: 'The Ship as Scientific Instrument in the Eighteenth Century' in Osiris, 2nd series, Vol. 11, 1996 pp.221-236.
* Felix Driver, Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration in the Age of Empire (Oxford, 1999). Ch.3

Class 8: Geology, Cartography and Mapping
*James Secord, 'King of Siluria: Roderick Murchison and the imperial theme in nineteenth-century British geology' in Victorian studies, Vol. 25, 1982, pp.413-442; reprinted in P. Brantlinger (ed.) Energy and entropy (Bloomington, 1989) pp.63-92
Suzanne Zeller, 'The Colonial World as a Geological Metaphor: Strata(gems) of empire in Victorian Canada', Osiris, 2nd series, Vol.15, 2000, pp.85-107.
D.G. Burnett, Masters of all they surveyed: Exploration, Geography and a British El Dorado (Chicago, 2000) Chs. 2, 3.

Class 9: Mesmerism, Medicine and Cure
* Alison Winter, Mesmerized: Powers of Mind in Victorian Britain (Chicago, 1998). Ch.8
David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (California, 1993) Ch.1

Class 10: Gorillas, Africans and Classification
Paul Du Chaillu, Explorations in Central Africa (London, 1861).
*Stuart Mc. Cook, 'It may be truth, but it is not evidence': Paul Du Chaillu and the legitimation of evidence in the field sciences' in Osiris, 2nd series, Vol. 11, 1996, pp.177-197.
E.Richards, 'Huxley and woman's place in science: the 'woman question' and the control of Victorian anthropology' in J.R. Moore (ed.) History, humanity and evolution (Cambridge, 1989).
Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial eyes: travel writing and transculturation (London, 1992) pp.201-213.

Class 11: Artefacts, Natural Theology and Collection
John Williams, A narrative of missionary enterprises in the South Sea islands with remarks upon the natural history of the islands, origin, languages, traditions, and usages of the inhabitants (London, 1837).
David Livingstone, Missionary travels and researches in South Africa: including a sketch of sixteen years' residence in the interior of Africa (London, 1889).
*Nicholas Thomas, Entangled objects: exchange, material culture, and colonialism in the Pacific (Cambridge, Mass., 1991) Chs. 3,4.

Class 12: Travel Journals, Men of Science and Heroism
Arthur C. Doyle, The lost world: being an account of the recent amazing adventures of Professor George E. Challenger, Lord John Roxton, Professor Summerlee, and Mr. E.D. Malone of the Daily Gazette (London, 1912, many later editions).
Charles Darwin, Journal of researches into the natural history & geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world under the command of Captain Fitz Roy (London, 1840, many later editions)
*Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial eyes: travel writing and transculturation (London, 1992) Ch.9

Class 13: Botany, Kew Gardens and Vocation
Anon, Sir Joseph Hooker, being presented with flowers by Himalyan spirits (image, photocopy available)
*Richard Drayton, Nature's government: science, imperial Britain and the 'improvement' of the world (London: Yale University Press, 2000). Chs. 5,6.
James Endersby, 'A garden enclosed: botanical barter in Sydney, 1818-1839' in British Journal for the History of Science, Vol. 33, 2000, pp.313-334.

Class 14: Astronomy, Travel and Observation
Alex Soojung-Kim Pang, 'The Social Event of the Season: Solar Eclipse Expeditions and Victorian culture' in Isis, Vol. 84, 1993, pp.252-277.
Jennifer Tucker, 'Voyages of Discovery on Oceans of Air: Scientific Observation and the Image of Science in an Age of 'Balloonacy'' in Osiris, 2nd series, Vol.11, 1996, pp.144-176.
*Michael Bravo, 'Precision and Curiosity in Scientific Travel: James Rennell and the Orientalist Geography of the New Imperial Age' in Jas Elsner and Joan-Pau Rubies (eds.) Voyages and Visions: Towards a Cultural History of Travel (London, 1999) pp.49-66.

Class 15: Telegraphy, Physics and Correspondence
*Michael Adas, Machines as the measure of men: science and technology and ideologies of western dominance (London, 1989) pp.133-270.
Daniel Headrick, Tentacles of Progress (New York, 1988) pp.97-144.
Richard J. Noakes, 'Telegraphy is an occult art: Cromwell Fleetwood Varley and the diffusion of electricity to the other world' in British Journal for the History of Science, Vol.32, 1999, pp.471-459.

Class 16: Anthropology, Eugenics and Measurement
B. Malinowski, A diary in the strict sense of the term (London, 1967)
*Douglas A. Lorimer, 'Science and the secularization of Victorian ideas of race' in Bernard Lightman (ed.) Victorian science in context (Chicago, 1997)
George Stocking, 'The ethnographer's magic: fieldwork in British anthropology from Tylor to Malinowski' in George Stocking (ed.) Observers observed: essays on ethnographic fieldwork (Lodnon, 1983)
H. Kuklick, 'The colonial exchange' in her The savage within: the social history of British anthropology, 1885-1945 (Cambridge, 1991) pp.119-181.

BRITAIN AND THE PACIFIC
Class 17: Pacific Islanders
Vanessa Smith, Literary culture and the Pacific: nineteenth-century textual encounters (Cambridge, 1998).
*Sujit Sivasundaram, 'Natural History Spiritualized: Cultivating Live Specimens, Civilising Pacific Islanders and Collecting Saved Souls' in History of Science, 2001, pp.417-447.
David Turnbull, 'Cook and Tupaia, a Tale of Cartographic Meconnaissance' in Margarette Lincoln (ed.) Science and Exploration in the Pacific (London, 1998) pp.117-132.

Class 18: Missionaries
Neil Gunson, 'British Missionaries and their Contribution to Science in the Pacific Islands' in F. Rehbock and R. Macleod (eds.) Darwin's laboratory: evolutionary theory and natural history in the Pacific (Honolulu, 1994) pp. 283-316.
Janet Browne, "Missionaries and the Human Mind' Darwin and Robert Fitzroy' in F. Rehbock and R. Macleod (eds.) Darwin's laboratory: evolutionary theory and natural history in the Pacific (Honolulu, 1994) pp.263-282.
*Greg Dening, Islands and beaches: discourse on a silent land, Marquesas1774-1880 (Honolulu, 1980)

Class 19: Nature
*Bernard Smith, European vision and the South Pacific,1768-1850 (Oxford, 1960). Chs.7-10.
Alan Frost, 'The antipodean exchange: European horticulture and imperial designs' in D.P. Miller and P.H Reill (eds.)Visions of empire: voyages, botany, and representations of nature (Cambridge, 1996).
Jane Samson , 'An empire of science: the voyage of HMS Herald, 1845-1851' in Frost A. and Samson J. (eds.) Pacific empires: Essays in honour of Glyndwr Williams (Vancouver, 1998).

Class 20: Britons
*Bernard Smith, Imagining the Pacific: in the wake of the Cook voyages (London, 1992).
H.G. Wells, The island of Doctor Moreau (London,1924).

Class 21: Overview
No readings.